Choose the best answer for each of the following questions according to the text.Computers Cannot Teach Children Basic Skills1.Computers should be in the schools.They have the potential to accomplish great things. With the right software, they could help make science tangible or teach neglected topics like art and music.They could help students form a concrete idea of society by displaying onscreen a version of the city in which they live — a picture that tracks real life moment by moment.2.In practice, however, computers make our worst educational nightmares come true. While we bemoan the decline of literacy,computers discount words in favor of pictures and pictures in favor of video. While we fret about the decreasing cogency of public debate, computers dismiss linear argument and promote fast, shallow romps across the information landscape. While we worry about basic skills, we allow into the classroom software that will do a student's arithmetic or correct his spelling.3.Take multimedia. The idea of multimedia is to combine text, sound and pictures in a single package that you browse on screen.You don't just read Shakespeare； you watch actors performing, listen to songs, view Elizabethan buildings. What's wrong with that? By offering children candy-coated books, multimedia is guaranteed to sour them on unsweetened reading. It makes the printed page look even more boring than it used to look. Sure, books will be available in the classroom, too — but they'll have all the appeal of a dusty piano to a teen who has a Walkman handy.4.So what if the little nippers don't read? If they're watching Olivier instead, what do they lose? The text,the written word along with all of its attendant pleasures. Besides, a book is more portable than a computer, has a higher-resolution display, can be written on and dog-eared and is comparatively dirt cheap.5.Hypermedia,multimedia's comrade in the struggle for a brave new classroom, is just as troubling. It's a way of presenting documents on screen without imposing a linear start-to-finish order. Disembodied, paragraphs are linked by theme； after reading one about the First World War, for example, you might be able to choose another about the technology of battleships, or the life of Woodrow Wilson, or hemlines in the 20s.This is another cute idea that is good in minor ways and terrible in major ones. Teaching children to understand the orderly unfolding of a plot or a logical argument is a crucial part of education. Authors don't merely agglomerate paragraphs； they work hard to make the narrative read a certain way, prove a particular point. To turn a book or a document into hypertext is to invite readers to ignore exactly what counts — the story.6.The real problem, again, is the accentuation of already bad hab its. Dynamiting documents into disjointed paragraphs is one more expression of the sorry fact that sustained'argument is not our style. If you're a newspaper or magazine editor and your readership is dwindling,what's the solution? Shorter pieces. If you're a politician and you want to get elected, what do you need? Tasty sound bites. Logical presentation be damned.7.Another software species, "allow me" programs, is not much better. These programs correct spelling and, by applying canned grammatical and stylistic rules, fix prose. In terms of promoting basic skills, though, they have all the virtues of a pocket calculator.8.In Kentucky, as the Wall Street Journal reported, students in grades K-3 are mixed together regardless of age in a relaxed environment. It works great, the Journal says. Yes, scores on computation tests have dropped 10 per cent at one school, but not to worry： "Drilling addition and subtraction in an age of calculators is a waste of time." the principal reassures us. Meanwhile, a Japanese educator informs University of Wisconsin mathematician Richard Akey that in his country,"calculators are not used in elementary or junior high school because the primary emphasis is on helping students develop their mental abilities." No wonder Japanese kids blow the pants off American kids in math. Do we really think "drilling addition and subtraction in an age of calculators is a waste of time"? If we do, then "drilling reading in an age of multimedia is a waste of time" can t be far behind.9.Prose-correcting programs are also a little ghoulish Jike asking a computer for tips on improving your personality. On the other hand. I ran this viewpoint through a spell-checker, so how can I ban the use of such programs in schools? Because to misspell is human； to have no idea of correct spelling is to be semiliterate".10.There's no denying that computers have the potential to perform inspiring feats in the classroom. If we are ever to see that potential realized, however, we ought to agree on three conditions. First, there should be a completely new crop of children's software. Most of today's offerings show no imagination. There are hundreds of similar readings and geography and arithmetic programs, but almost nothing on electricity or physics or architecture. Also, they abuse the technical capacities of new media to glitz up old forms instead of creating new ones. Why not build a time-travel program that gives kids a feel for how history is structured by zooming you backward? A spectrum, program that lets users twirl a frequency knob to see what happens?11.Second, computers should be used only during recess or relaxation periods. Treat them as fillips, not as surrogate teachers. When I was in school in the 60s, we all loved educational films. When we saw a movie in class, everybody won： teachers didn't have to teach, and pupils didn't have to learn. I suspect that classroom computers are popular today for the same reasons.12.Most important, educators should learn what parents and most teachers already know： you cannot teach a child anything unless you look him in the face. We should not forget what computers are. Like books — better in some ways, worse in others — they are devices that help children mobilize their own resources and learn for themselves. The computer s potential to do good is modestly greater than a book's in some areas. Its potential to do harm is vastly greater, across the board.10.In terms of using computers, the author would agree with all of the following except that ______.

Choose the best answer for each of the following questions according to the text.Fighting the War against Computer Crime1.Virtually every company with a computer is vulnerable tocomputer abuse, crime and accident. Security of the computer and of the information and assets contained within it are therefore of paramount importance to management. Skilled computer criminals can break into a computer system far more easily than an armed robber can gain access to a bank vault, and usually with far less risk of apprehension and punishment. A slight change in a complex program can bring about the misappropriation of thousands of pounds. Accidental erasure of crucial data can paralyse company's operations. Anyone familiar with the necessary procedure can gain access to information stored in the computer, no matter how confidential, and use it for his own purposes.2.Although the actual extent of computer crime is difficult to measure, most experts agree that it is one of the fastest growing areas of illegal activity. The principal reason for both the growth and the lack of accurate measurement is the difficulty in detecting a well-executed theft. Losses per incident thus tend to be higher than in other types of theft. Once the computer criminal has compromised the system, it is just as easy to steal a great sum as it is to steal a little, and to continue stealing long after the initial theft. Indeed, the computer criminal may find it more difficult to stop his illicit activity than to start it.3.Computer criminals are, for the most part, well-educated and highly intelligent, and have the analytical skills that make them valued employees. The fact that computer criminals do not fit criminal stereotypes helps them to obtain the positions they require to carry out crimes. Being intelligent, they have fertile imaginations, and the variety of ways in which they use equipment to their advantage is constantly being extended. In addition to direct theft of funds, the theft of data ("program-napping") for corporate espionage or extortion1 is becoming widespread, and can obviously have a substantial effect on a company's finances. Another lucrative scheme, often difficult to detect, involves accumulating fractions pence from individual payroll accounts, with electronic transfer of the accumulated amount to the criminal's payroll. Employers are hardly concerned with pence, much less fractions o£ pence. In addition, of course, the company's total payroll is unaffected. But the cumulative value of fractions of pence per employee in a company with a substantial payroll can add up to a useful gain.4.Sabotage is also an increasingly common type of computer crime. This can involve disabling the hardware, but is more likely to affect the software. Everyone in the computer business has heard of cases of a “time-bomb” being placed in a program. Typically, the programmer inserts an instruction that causes the computer to destroy an entire personnel data bank, for example, if the programmer's employment is terminated. As soon as the termination data is fed into the system, it automatically erases the entire program.5.Such acts of sabotage are particularly difficult to prevent because they do not become evident until the trigger is activated — by remote control. But, of course, not all computer losses are attributable to theft or abuse. Simple human error is by far the largest cause of system failure. Data stored on disks or tapes may be accidentally erased, or improper entry of information may introduce errors into the database.This is partly why every newly-created program must undergo extensive debugging.6.Guarding against computer abuse whether deliberate or accidental involves attention to the following areas： (1) Protection of hardware from physical damage； (2) Protection of software and data.7.The protection of hardware from accidental or imentional damage is a function of the environment in which the equipment is kept. The computer must be isolated from other company facilities, and access should be strictly controlled. No unauthorized person should ever be admitted to the computer area. Many insurance companies and security firms offer free evaluation of the physical protection of computer installations.8.The protection of software is a more difficult problem. Some risks are reduced by controlling physical access by unauthorized personnels but most damage to software, accidental and intentional, is caused by those whose jobs require at least some access to the computer. The writer of the program is often the one responsible for its misuse. Programs devised exclusively for a particular company are therefore far more vulnerable to abuse and accident than standard software packages produced by external suppliers.9.A unique program is both difficult and expensive to replace. Accidental erasure, sabotage, or physical removal of a single disk or tape could mean that a whole system has to be rebuilt, followed by a lengthy testing process. The creators of a custom-made program are almost always company employees, who may or may not have a vested interest in the program's function, and who, in the course of programming, can include virtually any instruction or routine with very little risk of detection. Moreover, they can alter the program at will, and there is little management that one can do to make sure that alterations in a unique program are always legitimate.10.Systems controlling cash management, financial operations, and personnel and payroll functions offer the greatest potential for individual gain, and are therefore the most common targets for computer crime and sabotage. However, well-proven standard applications software is available for these functions, which are essentially the same for all companies. The programs are written, tested9 documented and maintained independently by organizations which have no vested interest in the operation of the computer, and are unaffected by management's policy decisions. Internal programmers have little need to become thoroughly familiar with a software package, since it is delivered and installed complete. Further, a duplicate program can easily be obtained if the company has any reason to suspect that the software has been compromised.11.Controls incorporated in software packages are almost always stricter than those built into internally developed systems, because the former must function in a variety of environments. In addition, software packages may provide for different levels and types of access. One user may gain access, via a particular set of codes, just to view the data in the system； but another set of codes altogether may be required to alter data. A means of logging and identifying the source of every access, or change to the system, can also be provided. Each inquiry and update will then be identified by operator and/or terminal, so preventing anonymous access. This both discourages abuse and encourages operators to be conscientious. Because authorized operators are guided in their procedures, errors should be minimized.12.But even in a controlled physical environment, and with uniform software, security procedures are only effective if they are strictly followed by everyone in the company. It is not unusual to walk into a computer room and find the instructions for gaining access taped to a terminal. Concern for security must permeate the organization if it is to be effective, and that concern needs to be generated from the top.1.Which of the following can NOT be inferred from the passage?

Choose the best answer for each of the following questions according to the text.Fighting the War against Computer Crime1.Virtually every company with a computer is vulnerable tocomputer abuse, crime and accident. Security of the computer and of the information and assets contained within it are therefore of paramount importance to management. Skilled computer criminals can break into a computer system far more easily than an armed robber can gain access to a bank vault, and usually with far less risk of apprehension and punishment. A slight change in a complex program can bring about the misappropriation of thousands of pounds. Accidental erasure of crucial data can paralyse company's operations. Anyone familiar with the necessary procedure can gain access to information stored in the computer, no matter how confidential, and use it for his own purposes.2.Although the actual extent of computer crime is difficult to measure, most experts agree that it is one of the fastest growing areas of illegal activity. The principal reason for both the growth and the lack of accurate measurement is the difficulty in detecting a well-executed theft. Losses per incident thus tend to be higher than in other types of theft. Once the computer criminal has compromised the system, it is just as easy to steal a great sum as it is to steal a little, and to continue stealing long after the initial theft. Indeed, the computer criminal may find it more difficult to stop his illicit activity than to start it.3.Computer criminals are, for the most part, well-educated and highly intelligent, and have the analytical skills that make them valued employees. The fact that computer criminals do not fit criminal stereotypes helps them to obtain the positions they require to carry out crimes. Being intelligent, they have fertile imaginations, and the variety of ways in which they use equipment to their advantage is constantly being extended. In addition to direct theft of funds, the theft of data ("program-napping") for corporate espionage or extortion1 is becoming widespread, and can obviously have a substantial effect on a company's finances. Another lucrative scheme, often difficult to detect, involves accumulating fractions pence from individual payroll accounts, with electronic transfer of the accumulated amount to the criminal's payroll. Employers are hardly concerned with pence, much less fractions o£ pence. In addition, of course, the company's total payroll is unaffected. But the cumulative value of fractions of pence per employee in a company with a substantial payroll can add up to a useful gain.4.Sabotage is also an increasingly common type of computer crime. This can involve disabling the hardware, but is more likely to affect the software. Everyone in the computer business has heard of cases of a “time-bomb” being placed in a program. Typically, the programmer inserts an instruction that causes the computer to destroy an entire personnel data bank, for example, if the programmer's employment is terminated. As soon as the termination data is fed into the system, it automatically erases the entire program.5.Such acts of sabotage are particularly difficult to prevent because they do not become evident until the trigger is activated — by remote control. But, of course, not all computer losses are attributable to theft or abuse. Simple human error is by far the largest cause of system failure. Data stored on disks or tapes may be accidentally erased, or improper entry of information may introduce errors into the database.This is partly why every newly-created program must undergo extensive debugging.6.Guarding against computer abuse whether deliberate or accidental involves attention to the following areas： (1) Protection of hardware from physical damage； (2) Protection of software and data.7.The protection of hardware from accidental or imentional damage is a function of the environment in which the equipment is kept. The computer must be isolated from other company facilities, and access should be strictly controlled. No unauthorized person should ever be admitted to the computer area. Many insurance companies and security firms offer free evaluation of the physical protection of computer installations.8.The protection of software is a more difficult problem. Some risks are reduced by controlling physical access by unauthorized personnels but most damage to software, accidental and intentional, is caused by those whose jobs require at least some access to the computer. The writer of the program is often the one responsible for its misuse. Programs devised exclusively for a particular company are therefore far more vulnerable to abuse and accident than standard software packages produced by external suppliers.9.A unique program is both difficult and expensive to replace. Accidental erasure, sabotage, or physical removal of a single disk or tape could mean that a whole system has to be rebuilt, followed by a lengthy testing process. The creators of a custom-made program are almost always company employees, who may or may not have a vested interest in the program's function, and who, in the course of programming, can include virtually any instruction or routine with very little risk of detection. Moreover, they can alter the program at will, and there is little management that one can do to make sure that alterations in a unique program are always legitimate.10.Systems controlling cash management, financial operations, and personnel and payroll functions offer the greatest potential for individual gain, and are therefore the most common targets for computer crime and sabotage. However, well-proven standard applications software is available for these functions, which are essentially the same for all companies. The programs are written, tested9 documented and maintained independently by organizations which have no vested interest in the operation of the computer, and are unaffected by management's policy decisions. Internal programmers have little need to become thoroughly familiar with a software package, since it is delivered and installed complete. Further, a duplicate program can easily be obtained if the company has any reason to suspect that the software has been compromised.11.Controls incorporated in software packages are almost always stricter than those built into internally developed systems, because the former must function in a variety of environments. In addition, software packages may provide for different levels and types of access. One user may gain access, via a particular set of codes, just to view the data in the system； but another set of codes altogether may be required to alter data. A means of logging and identifying the source of every access, or change to the system, can also be provided. Each inquiry and update will then be identified by operator and/or terminal, so preventing anonymous access. This both discourages abuse and encourages operators to be conscientious. Because authorized operators are guided in their procedures, errors should be minimized.12.But even in a controlled physical environment, and with uniform software, security procedures are only effective if they are strictly followed by everyone in the company. It is not unusual to walk into a computer room and find the instructions for gaining access taped to a terminal. Concern for security must permeate the organization if it is to be effective, and that concern needs to be generated from the top.2.EDP most probably means _______.

Choose the best answer for each of the following questions according to the text.Fighting the War against Computer Crime1.Virtually every company with a computer is vulnerable tocomputer abuse, crime and accident. Security of the computer and of the information and assets contained within it are therefore of paramount importance to management. Skilled computer criminals can break into a computer system far more easily than an armed robber can gain access to a bank vault, and usually with far less risk of apprehension and punishment. A slight change in a complex program can bring about the misappropriation of thousands of pounds. Accidental erasure of crucial data can paralyse company's operations. Anyone familiar with the necessary procedure can gain access to information stored in the computer, no matter how confidential, and use it for his own purposes.2.Although the actual extent of computer crime is difficult to measure, most experts agree that it is one of the fastest growing areas of illegal activity. The principal reason for both the growth and the lack of accurate measurement is the difficulty in detecting a well-executed theft. Losses per incident thus tend to be higher than in other types of theft. Once the computer criminal has compromised the system, it is just as easy to steal a great sum as it is to steal a little, and to continue stealing long after the initial theft. Indeed, the computer criminal may find it more difficult to stop his illicit activity than to start it.3.Computer criminals are, for the most part, well-educated and highly intelligent, and have the analytical skills that make them valued employees. The fact that computer criminals do not fit criminal stereotypes helps them to obtain the positions they require to carry out crimes. Being intelligent, they have fertile imaginations, and the variety of ways in which they use equipment to their advantage is constantly being extended. In addition to direct theft of funds, the theft of data ("program-napping") for corporate espionage or extortion1 is becoming widespread, and can obviously have a substantial effect on a company's finances. Another lucrative scheme, often difficult to detect, involves accumulating fractions pence from individual payroll accounts, with electronic transfer of the accumulated amount to the criminal's payroll. Employers are hardly concerned with pence, much less fractions o£ pence. In addition, of course, the company's total payroll is unaffected. But the cumulative value of fractions of pence per employee in a company with a substantial payroll can add up to a useful gain.4.Sabotage is also an increasingly common type of computer crime. This can involve disabling the hardware, but is more likely to affect the software. Everyone in the computer business has heard of cases of a “time-bomb” being placed in a program. Typically, the programmer inserts an instruction that causes the computer to destroy an entire personnel data bank, for example, if the programmer's employment is terminated. As soon as the termination data is fed into the system, it automatically erases the entire program.5.Such acts of sabotage are particularly difficult to prevent because they do not become evident until the trigger is activated — by remote control. But, of course, not all computer losses are attributable to theft or abuse. Simple human error is by far the largest cause of system failure. Data stored on disks or tapes may be accidentally erased, or improper entry of information may introduce errors into the database.This is partly why every newly-created program must undergo extensive debugging.6.Guarding against computer abuse whether deliberate or accidental involves attention to the following areas： (1) Protection of hardware from physical damage； (2) Protection of software and data.7.The protection of hardware from accidental or imentional damage is a function of the environment in which the equipment is kept. The computer must be isolated from other company facilities, and access should be strictly controlled. No unauthorized person should ever be admitted to the computer area. Many insurance companies and security firms offer free evaluation of the physical protection of computer installations.8.The protection of software is a more difficult problem. Some risks are reduced by controlling physical access by unauthorized personnels but most damage to software, accidental and intentional, is caused by those whose jobs require at least some access to the computer. The writer of the program is often the one responsible for its misuse. Programs devised exclusively for a particular company are therefore far more vulnerable to abuse and accident than standard software packages produced by external suppliers.9.A unique program is both difficult and expensive to replace. Accidental erasure, sabotage, or physical removal of a single disk or tape could mean that a whole system has to be rebuilt, followed by a lengthy testing process. The creators of a custom-made program are almost always company employees, who may or may not have a vested interest in the program's function, and who, in the course of programming, can include virtually any instruction or routine with very little risk of detection. Moreover, they can alter the program at will, and there is little management that one can do to make sure that alterations in a unique program are always legitimate.10.Systems controlling cash management, financial operations, and personnel and payroll functions offer the greatest potential for individual gain, and are therefore the most common targets for computer crime and sabotage. However, well-proven standard applications software is available for these functions, which are essentially the same for all companies. The programs are written, tested9 documented and maintained independently by organizations which have no vested interest in the operation of the computer, and are unaffected by management's policy decisions. Internal programmers have little need to become thoroughly familiar with a software package, since it is delivered and installed complete. Further, a duplicate program can easily be obtained if the company has any reason to suspect that the software has been compromised.11.Controls incorporated in software packages are almost always stricter than those built into internally developed systems, because the former must function in a variety of environments. In addition, software packages may provide for different levels and types of access. One user may gain access, via a particular set of codes, just to view the data in the system； but another set of codes altogether may be required to alter data. A means of logging and identifying the source of every access, or change to the system, can also be provided. Each inquiry and update will then be identified by operator and/or terminal, so preventing anonymous access. This both discourages abuse and encourages operators to be conscientious. Because authorized operators are guided in their procedures, errors should be minimized.12.But even in a controlled physical environment, and with uniform software, security procedures are only effective if they are strictly followed by everyone in the company. It is not unusual to walk into a computer room and find the instructions for gaining access taped to a terminal. Concern for security must permeate the organization if it is to be effective, and that concern needs to be generated from the top.3.All of the following have been mentioned as different types of computer crimes except _______.

Choose the best answer for each of the following questions according to the text.Fighting the War against Computer Crime1.Virtually every company with a computer is vulnerable tocomputer abuse, crime and accident. Security of the computer and of the information and assets contained within it are therefore of paramount importance to management. Skilled computer criminals can break into a computer system far more easily than an armed robber can gain access to a bank vault, and usually with far less risk of apprehension and punishment. A slight change in a complex program can bring about the misappropriation of thousands of pounds. Accidental erasure of crucial data can paralyse company's operations. Anyone familiar with the necessary procedure can gain access to information stored in the computer, no matter how confidential, and use it for his own purposes.2.Although the actual extent of computer crime is difficult to measure, most experts agree that it is one of the fastest growing areas of illegal activity. The principal reason for both the growth and the lack of accurate measurement is the difficulty in detecting a well-executed theft. Losses per incident thus tend to be higher than in other types of theft. Once the computer criminal has compromised the system, it is just as easy to steal a great sum as it is to steal a little, and to continue stealing long after the initial theft. Indeed, the computer criminal may find it more difficult to stop his illicit activity than to start it.3.Computer criminals are, for the most part, well-educated and highly intelligent, and have the analytical skills that make them valued employees. The fact that computer criminals do not fit criminal stereotypes helps them to obtain the positions they require to carry out crimes. Being intelligent, they have fertile imaginations, and the variety of ways in which they use equipment to their advantage is constantly being extended. In addition to direct theft of funds, the theft of data ("program-napping") for corporate espionage or extortion1 is becoming widespread, and can obviously have a substantial effect on a company's finances. Another lucrative scheme, often difficult to detect, involves accumulating fractions pence from individual payroll accounts, with electronic transfer of the accumulated amount to the criminal's payroll. Employers are hardly concerned with pence, much less fractions o£ pence. In addition, of course, the company's total payroll is unaffected. But the cumulative value of fractions of pence per employee in a company with a substantial payroll can add up to a useful gain.4.Sabotage is also an increasingly common type of computer crime. This can involve disabling the hardware, but is more likely to affect the software. Everyone in the computer business has heard of cases of a “time-bomb” being placed in a program. Typically, the programmer inserts an instruction that causes the computer to destroy an entire personnel data bank, for example, if the programmer's employment is terminated. As soon as the termination data is fed into the system, it automatically erases the entire program.5.Such acts of sabotage are particularly difficult to prevent because they do not become evident until the trigger is activated — by remote control. But, of course, not all computer losses are attributable to theft or abuse. Simple human error is by far the largest cause of system failure. Data stored on disks or tapes may be accidentally erased, or improper entry of information may introduce errors into the database.This is partly why every newly-created program must undergo extensive debugging.6.Guarding against computer abuse whether deliberate or accidental involves attention to the following areas： (1) Protection of hardware from physical damage； (2) Protection of software and data.7.The protection of hardware from accidental or imentional damage is a function of the environment in which the equipment is kept. The computer must be isolated from other company facilities, and access should be strictly controlled. No unauthorized person should ever be admitted to the computer area. Many insurance companies and security firms offer free evaluation of the physical protection of computer installations.8.The protection of software is a more difficult problem. Some risks are reduced by controlling physical access by unauthorized personnels but most damage to software, accidental and intentional, is caused by those whose jobs require at least some access to the computer. The writer of the program is often the one responsible for its misuse. Programs devised exclusively for a particular company are therefore far more vulnerable to abuse and accident than standard software packages produced by external suppliers.9.A unique program is both difficult and expensive to replace. Accidental erasure, sabotage, or physical removal of a single disk or tape could mean that a whole system has to be rebuilt, followed by a lengthy testing process. The creators of a custom-made program are almost always company employees, who may or may not have a vested interest in the program's function, and who, in the course of programming, can include virtually any instruction or routine with very little risk of detection. Moreover, they can alter the program at will, and there is little management that one can do to make sure that alterations in a unique program are always legitimate.10.Systems controlling cash management, financial operations, and personnel and payroll functions offer the greatest potential for individual gain, and are therefore the most common targets for computer crime and sabotage. However, well-proven standard applications software is available for these functions, which are essentially the same for all companies. The programs are written, tested9 documented and maintained independently by organizations which have no vested interest in the operation of the computer, and are unaffected by management's policy decisions. Internal programmers have little need to become thoroughly familiar with a software package, since it is delivered and installed complete. Further, a duplicate program can easily be obtained if the company has any reason to suspect that the software has been compromised.11.Controls incorporated in software packages are almost always stricter than those built into internally developed systems, because the former must function in a variety of environments. In addition, software packages may provide for different levels and types of access. One user may gain access, via a particular set of codes, just to view the data in the system； but another set of codes altogether may be required to alter data. A means of logging and identifying the source of every access, or change to the system, can also be provided. Each inquiry and update will then be identified by operator and/or terminal, so preventing anonymous access. This both discourages abuse and encourages operators to be conscientious. Because authorized operators are guided in their procedures, errors should be minimized.12.But even in a controlled physical environment, and with uniform software, security procedures are only effective if they are strictly followed by everyone in the company. It is not unusual to walk into a computer room and find the instructions for gaining access taped to a terminal. Concern for security must permeate the organization if it is to be effective, and that concern needs to be generated from the top.4.Which of the following is true about computer criminals according to Para. 4?

Choose the best answer for each of the following questions according to the text.Fighting the War against Computer Crime1.Virtually every company with a computer is vulnerable tocomputer abuse, crime and accident. Security of the computer and of the information and assets contained within it are therefore of paramount importance to management. Skilled computer criminals can break into a computer system far more easily than an armed robber can gain access to a bank vault, and usually with far less risk of apprehension and punishment. A slight change in a complex program can bring about the misappropriation of thousands of pounds. Accidental erasure of crucial data can paralyse company's operations. Anyone familiar with the necessary procedure can gain access to information stored in the computer, no matter how confidential, and use it for his own purposes.2.Although the actual extent of computer crime is difficult to measure, most experts agree that it is one of the fastest growing areas of illegal activity. The principal reason for both the growth and the lack of accurate measurement is the difficulty in detecting a well-executed theft. Losses per incident thus tend to be higher than in other types of theft. Once the computer criminal has compromised the system, it is just as easy to steal a great sum as it is to steal a little, and to continue stealing long after the initial theft. Indeed, the computer criminal may find it more difficult to stop his illicit activity than to start it.3.Computer criminals are, for the most part, well-educated and highly intelligent, and have the analytical skills that make them valued employees. The fact that computer criminals do not fit criminal stereotypes helps them to obtain the positions they require to carry out crimes. Being intelligent, they have fertile imaginations, and the variety of ways in which they use equipment to their advantage is constantly being extended. In addition to direct theft of funds, the theft of data ("program-napping") for corporate espionage or extortion1 is becoming widespread, and can obviously have a substantial effect on a company's finances. Another lucrative scheme, often difficult to detect, involves accumulating fractions pence from individual payroll accounts, with electronic transfer of the accumulated amount to the criminal's payroll. Employers are hardly concerned with pence, much less fractions o£ pence. In addition, of course, the company's total payroll is unaffected. But the cumulative value of fractions of pence per employee in a company with a substantial payroll can add up to a useful gain.4.Sabotage is also an increasingly common type of computer crime. This can involve disabling the hardware, but is more likely to affect the software. Everyone in the computer business has heard of cases of a “time-bomb” being placed in a program. Typically, the programmer inserts an instruction that causes the computer to destroy an entire personnel data bank, for example, if the programmer's employment is terminated. As soon as the termination data is fed into the system, it automatically erases the entire program.5.Such acts of sabotage are particularly difficult to prevent because they do not become evident until the trigger is activated — by remote control. But, of course, not all computer losses are attributable to theft or abuse. Simple human error is by far the largest cause of system failure. Data stored on disks or tapes may be accidentally erased, or improper entry of information may introduce errors into the database.This is partly why every newly-created program must undergo extensive debugging.6.Guarding against computer abuse whether deliberate or accidental involves attention to the following areas： (1) Protection of hardware from physical damage； (2) Protection of software and data.7.The protection of hardware from accidental or imentional damage is a function of the environment in which the equipment is kept. The computer must be isolated from other company facilities, and access should be strictly controlled. No unauthorized person should ever be admitted to the computer area. Many insurance companies and security firms offer free evaluation of the physical protection of computer installations.8.The protection of software is a more difficult problem. Some risks are reduced by controlling physical access by unauthorized personnels but most damage to software, accidental and intentional, is caused by those whose jobs require at least some access to the computer. The writer of the program is often the one responsible for its misuse. Programs devised exclusively for a particular company are therefore far more vulnerable to abuse and accident than standard software packages produced by external suppliers.9.A unique program is both difficult and expensive to replace. Accidental erasure, sabotage, or physical removal of a single disk or tape could mean that a whole system has to be rebuilt, followed by a lengthy testing process. The creators of a custom-made program are almost always company employees, who may or may not have a vested interest in the program's function, and who, in the course of programming, can include virtually any instruction or routine with very little risk of detection. Moreover, they can alter the program at will, and there is little management that one can do to make sure that alterations in a unique program are always legitimate.10.Systems controlling cash management, financial operations, and personnel and payroll functions offer the greatest potential for individual gain, and are therefore the most common targets for computer crime and sabotage. However, well-proven standard applications software is available for these functions, which are essentially the same for all companies. The programs are written, tested9 documented and maintained independently by organizations which have no vested interest in the operation of the computer, and are unaffected by management's policy decisions. Internal programmers have little need to become thoroughly familiar with a software package, since it is delivered and installed complete. Further, a duplicate program can easily be obtained if the company has any reason to suspect that the software has been compromised.11.Controls incorporated in software packages are almost always stricter than those built into internally developed systems, because the former must function in a variety of environments. In addition, software packages may provide for different levels and types of access. One user may gain access, via a particular set of codes, just to view the data in the system； but another set of codes altogether may be required to alter data. A means of logging and identifying the source of every access, or change to the system, can also be provided. Each inquiry and update will then be identified by operator and/or terminal, so preventing anonymous access. This both discourages abuse and encourages operators to be conscientious. Because authorized operators are guided in their procedures, errors should be minimized.12.But even in a controlled physical environment, and with uniform software, security procedures are only effective if they are strictly followed by everyone in the company. It is not unusual to walk into a computer room and find the instructions for gaining access taped to a terminal. Concern for security must permeate the organization if it is to be effective, and that concern needs to be generated from the top.5.It is implied in the passage that the cause of computer crime is mainly _______.